Evidencias de validez de la tarea de los dedos en una modalidad de administración asincrónica / Validity evidence of the finger task in an asynchronous administration modality

La batería de Autorregulación Cognitiva -TAC-es una herramienta informatizada para la evaluación de los principales procesos ejecutivos en una modalidad de administración presencial. Aunque sus características técnicas hacen viable su administración en una modalidad remota y asincrónica aún no cuenta con evidencias de validez y confiabilidad de sus puntuaciones en una modalidad de administración no presencial. Por ello, este estudio propone obtener evidencias de las propiedades psicométricas de la Tarea de los Dedos -TAC-en su modalidad de administración remota y asincrónica para la evaluación de la Inhibición comportamental y la flexibilidad cognitiva en personas adultas. Para cumplir con este objetivo, se analizó la presencia de dos efectos experimentales que aportan validez de constructo y se comparó su desempeño en las dos modalidades de administración. Finalmente, se analizó la confiabilidad de las puntuaciones a través del método de división por mitades. Los resultados obtenidos aportan evidencia empírica de las propiedades psicométricas del instrumento(AU)

The cognitive self-regulation battery -TAC-is a computerized tool designed to evaluate the work memory, three inhibitory processes and cognitive flexibility. There is still no evidence of validity and reliability of their scores in remote administration mode. The goal of this work is to obtain evidence of reliability and validity for the tac fingers task in remote and asynchronous administration mode for cognitive flexibility and behavioral inhibition evaluation in the adult population. It was analyzed iftwo experimental effects were detected. Its presence indicates the activation or participation of cognitive flexibility and behavioral inhibition in the resolution of activities proposed by the task. Also, the performance of the participants in both modalities was compared. The internal consistency was analyzed through the method of division by halves. The results obtained provide empirical evidence of psychometric properties of TAC fingers task for evaluation of cognitive flexibility and behavioral inhibition in the adult population(AU)

Inhibición de la respuesta: Entrenamiento y efectos vinculados al nivel inhibitorio de base, en niños / Response inhibition: training and effects linked to the level of inhibition in pre-test, in children

Resumen Desde el enfoque no-unitario de la inhibición, se identifican tres procesos inhibitorios: inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta. Esta última permite suprimir conductas prepotentes e inapropiadas para los objetivos en curso. En los últimos años se evaluaron diferentes intervenciones orientadas a optimizar la inhibición de la respuesta durante los inicios de la escuela primaria; sin embargo, los estudios resultan insuficientes para evaluar la eficacia de estas intervenciones sobre el proceso entrenado y otros procesos inhibitorios e identificar las características asociadas a los resultados. En este estudio se propuso analizar la eficacia de un entrenamiento de la inhibición de la respuesta en niños en los primeros años de escolaridad primaria, sobre este proceso y la inhibición perceptual, a corto y largo plazo; y estudiar si variables como la edad y el nivel inhibitorio de base de los participantes se relacionan con los resultados. Participaron 93 niños (de 6 a 8 años), asignados a un grupo de entrenamiento y otro de control, en un diseño experimental con pre-test y dos post-test. Se observaron efectos, atribuibles al entrenamiento, sobre el desempeño de una tarea de inhibición de la respuesta a corto plazo, siendo los niños con un nivel inhibitorio de base más bajo quienes presentaron mayores beneficios. Se discute sobre el aporte de los resultados al modelo no-unitario de la inhibición, el alcance de las intervenciones y el estudio de las características de los participantes en relación con los efectos del entrenamiento.

Abstract From non-unitary perspective of inhibition, three inhibitory processes are identified: perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition. Response inhibition allows suppressing prepotent and inappropriate responses for the current purposes. In the last years, different interventions targeted at optimizing it during the first years of school period. However, the studies are insufficient to understand the efficacy of the interventions on response inhibition and other inhibitory processes, both short- and long-term; and the characteristics that are linked to the results. The goals aims: to analyze the efficacy of a response inhibition training on this process and perceptual inhibition, both short- and long-term, in children in the first years of elementary school; and to analyze if the relationships of age and the level of inhibition in pre-test are related to the results. The participants (93 children, from 6 to 8 years old) were assigned to a training or a control group, in an experimental design, with a pre-test and two post-tests. We observed effects in the short term on children's performance on a response inhibition task. The children who benefited more from the intervention were those who started the intervention with a lower level of inhibition. We discuss the contribution of these results to non-unitary perspective, the scope of the interventions and the study of the participants' characteristics related to the results.

Impact of a combined cognitive and response inhibition training in school-age children / mpacto de un entrenamiento combinado de inhibición cognitiva y de la respuesta en niños en edad escolar

The aims of this work were: (1) to implement a brief 6 sessions intervention, which combines training activities of Cognitive Inhibition (CI) and ResponseInhibition (RI), in a group of schoolchildren aged from 6 to 8 years (M = 6.8, SD = .61; n = 38; 60.5% girls, 39.5% boys); (2) to analyze the effects ofthe intervention on training tasks performances, on untraining inhibitory tasks (near transfer) and on performance in a FI task (far transfer); and (3) tostudy individual differences in training effects associated with baseline inhibitory performance. An experimental design, pre-test, post-test and controlgroup (CG), was implemented. The main results indicate an improvement in performance in trained tasks -differences between first and last session:CI training Z = -3.455, p = .001; RI training Z = -3.758, p < .001-, low effects of the intervention on performance in an untrained CI task -experimentalgroup (EG), difference pre/post-test performance: F(1,16) = 3.893, p = .066, np2 = .196- and effects on performance in the FI task -F(1,36) = 6.484,p = .015, np2 = .153. In the first two cases, it was observed that the students with a lower base line inhibitory performance, showed greater profits -CItraining, r = -.524, p = .031; RI training, r = -.470, p = .057; untrained CI task, r = .755, p = .001. We discussed the transfer based processing on shortinterventions and the use of different tasks measurements.(AU)

Impacto de un entrenamiento combinado de inhibición cognitiva y de la respuesta en niños en edad escolar. Los objetivos de este trabajo fueron: (1)implementar una intervención breve de 6 sesiones, que combina actividades de entrenamiento de la inhibición cognitiva y de la respuesta, en un grupode escolares de 6 a 8 años de edad (M = 6.8, DE = .61; n = 38; niñas = 60.5%, niños = 39.5%); (2) analizar los efectos de la intervención sobre el ren-dimiento en las tareas entrenadas, en tareas inhibitorias no entrenadas (transferencia cercana), y sobre el desempeño en una tarea de inteligencia fluida(transferencia lejana); y (3) estudiar las diferencias individuales en los efectos del entrenamiento asociadas con el rendimiento inhibitorio de base. Seimplementó un diseño experimental con pre-test, post-test y grupo control. Los principales resultados indican un avance en el desempeño en las tareasde entrenamiento -diferencias entre primera y última sesión: entrenamiento de inhibición cognitiva, Z = -3.455, p = .001; entrenamiento de inhibición dela respuesta, Z = -3.758, p < .001- efectos bajos de la intervención sobre el desempeño en una tarea de inhibición cognitiva no entrenada – diferenciasde rendimiento pre/post-test en el grupo experimental grupo experimental: F(1,16) = 3.893, p = .066, np2 = .196-, y efectos sobre el rendimiento enla tarea de inteligencia fluida - F(1,36) = 6.484, p = .015, np2 = .153. En los dos primeros casos se observó que los escolares con un rendimientoinhibitorio de base más bajo, presentaron mayores ganancias -entrenamiento de inhibición cognitiva, r = -.524, p = .031; entrenamiento de inhibición dela respuesta r = -.470, p = .057; tarea no entrenada de inhibición cognitiva, r = .755, p = .001. Se discute en torno a los alcances de la transferencia apartir de intervenciones breves y del empleo de distintas tareas de medición.(AU)

Desarrollo y validación del Cuestionario de Funciones Ejecutivas en niños de 9 a 12 años (CUFE) / Development and Validation of the Executive Function Questionnaire (CUFE) for Children aged 9-12 Years / Desenvolvimento e validação do Questionário de Funções Executivas em crianças de 9 a 12 anos (CUFE)

El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo desarrollar y validar el Cuestionario de Funciones Ejecutivas (CUFE), un cuestionario accesible para evaluar las tres principales funciones ejecutivas (memoria de trabajo, inhibición y flexibilidad cognitiva) en niños de 9 a 12 años y, así, proporcionar valores descriptivos de referencia y evidencias acerca de su confiabilidad y validez. Para ello se analizó su funcionamiento en una muestra de 269 niños argentinos de 9 a 12 años de edad, alumnos del segundo ciclo de la escuela primaria. El análisis factorial exploratorio reveló una estructura de tres factores que explicaban 49.08 % de la varianza, con cargas factoriales unidimensionales y satisfactorias. Los factores retenidos presentaron buenos índices de confiabilidad y fueron llamados: memoria de trabajo, inhibición y flexibilidad y con-trol emocional. La memoria de trabajo se asoció con la comprensión lectora, el cálculo matemático y las calificaciones escolares de Prácticas del lenguaje y Matemática. Las restantes dos subescalas se asociaron con las calificaciones escolares de ambas asignaturas. Las dimensiones del cuestionario coinciden con los actuales modelos teóricos de funcionamiento ejecutivo. En función de las evidencias de validez y confiabilidad, el CUFE se presenta como un instrumento ecológico y valioso para la medición de las funciones ejecutivas en el contexto de la evaluación infantil

The present study aimed to develop and validate an accessible questionnaire to assess the three core execu-tive functions (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility) in children aged 9-12 years: the Executive Function Questionnaire (CUFE), and to provide descrip-tive baseline values and evidence about its reliability and validity. The questionnaire was tested on a sample of 269 Argentinean children from 9 to 12 years old. Children attended elementary schools in Mar del Plata's city. The exploratory factorial analysis revealed a three-factor structure that explained 49.08% of the variance. The items were unidimensional and showed satisfactory factor loadings. The retained factors presented good reliability and were called working memory, inhibition and flexibility, and emotional control. Working memory was associated with reading comprehension, mathemat-ical skills, and school grades (language practices and mathematics). Inhibition and flexibility, and emotional control were associated with school grades. The factors were consistent with current theoretical models on executive functioning. Based on the evidence obtained, the cufe represents an ecological and valuable instru-ment for measuring executive functions on children

O presente estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver e validar um questionário acessível para avaliar as três principais funções executivas (memória de trabalho, inibição, flexibilidade cognitiva) em crianças de 9 a 12 anos: o Questionário de Funções Executivas (cufe); e fornecer valores de referência descritivos e evidên-cias sobre sua confiabilidade e validade. Para tanto, foi analisado seu funcionamento em uma amostra de 269 crianças argentinas entre 9 e 12 anos, estudantes do se-gundo ciclo do ensino fundamental. A análise fatorial exploratória revelou uma estrutura de três fatores que explicou 49.08% da variância, com cargas fatoriais unidi-mensionais satisfatórias. Os fatores retidos apresentaram bons índices de confiabilidade e foram denominados Memória de trabalho, Inibição e Flexibilidade e con-trole emocional. A memória de trabalho foi associada à compreensão de leitura, ao cálculo matemático e às notas escolares de Prática de Linguagem e Matemática. As duas subescalas restantes foram associadas às notas escolares de ambas as disciplinas. As dimensões do ques-tionário coincidem com os modelos teóricos atuais de funcionamento executivo. Com base nas evidências de validade e confiabilidade, o cufe apresenta-se como um instrumento ecológico e valioso para a mensuração das funções executivas no contexto da avaliação infantil

Inhibición comportamental en contextos emocionales y neutrales: un estudio en población infantil / Response inhibition in emotional and neutral contexts: a study in children

Introducción: Recientemente se ha demostrado que las emociones interfieren con la eficacia de la inhibición comportamental. La inhibición comportamental es el proceso encargado de suprimir, de forma deliberada respuestas automáticas, dominantes o prepotentes que resultan inapropiadas en función de los objetivos. Debido a la relevancia de los estímulos emocionales para la supervivencia, diferentes estudios han indicado que el rendimiento de la inhibición comportamental puede variar según el contexto, es decir, en contextos neutrales o emocionalmente relevantes. Objetivo: Por este motivo, el objetivo del estudio fue analizar el funcionamiento de la inhibición comportamental en contextos con distinta temperatura emocional en una muestra de niños de 8 a 12 años de edad. Material y métodos: Los niños realizaron una tarea experimental de Simon Afectivo con estímulos emocionales y neutrales para evaluar la inhibición comportamental en contextos con alta y baja importancia emocional. Resultados y discusión: Los resultados mostraron que no hubo diferencias significativas dependiendo del contexto como se esperaba. Se discuten los resultados a la luz de otros estudios, y se enfatiza que estos resultados constituyen un enfoque para el problema de la interferencia del contenido emocional en población infantil.(AU)

Introduction: The literature has recently shown that emotions interfere with the efficacy of response inhibition. Response inhibition is the process that deliberately suppresses automatic, or dominant responses that are inappropriate to achieve personal goals. Due to the relevance of emotional stimuli for survival, different studies have suggested that the performance of response inhibition can vary depending on the context, that is, in neutral or emotionally salience contexts. Objective: The aim of the study was to investigate the functioning of behavioral inhibition in contexts with different emotional temperatures in a large sample of children from 8 to 12 years-old. Methods and materials: Inhibition was assessed using an experimental Simon Affective task with emotional and neutral stimuli simulating contexts with high and low emotional salience respectively. Results and discussion: Contrary to expectations, the results showed that there were no significant differences in response inhibition depending on the context. The results are discussed in relation to other studies. These results constitute a contribution to the study of the interference of emotional content in children.(AU)

Cognitive flexibility in adulthood and advanced age: Evidence of internal and external validity.

Aging causes changes that affect functioning of cognitive processes such as cognitive flexibility (CF). Given it allows changing both behavior and thinking in dynamic contexts, it constitutes an essential trait of adaptive, goal-oriented behavior. Despite its importance, specific techniques to evaluate CF in older adults are lacking. The goal of this article is to describe and comparatively analyze the functioning of CF in a sample of 169 individuals representing three age groups-younger-age, middle-age and advanced-age adults-by obtaining evidence of internal and external validity. Using a correlational and cross-sectional research design, four studies were conducted in order to evaluate construct validity-fulfillment of experimental paradigm criteria and contrast between groups and tests with different methods. In addition to the Fingers Task, the study used the CAMBIOS Cognitive Flexibility Test, TAC's Conjunction Visual Search Task (which evaluates perceptual inhibition) and a verbal fluency task with changes. The results provide evidence of the functioning of CF in adulthood and advanced age, which has implications for neurocognitive clinical evaluation in these stages of life. Additionally, evidence was obtained in favor of the concurrent validity of the instruments used to measure CF, contributing to the solidity of future studies on this executive function.

El rol de las funciones ejecutivas en las estrategias cognitivas de regulación emocional no adaptativas en niños / O papel das funções executivas nas estratégias cognitivas de regulação emocional não adaptivas em crianças / The role of executive functions in maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies in children

El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar la relación de las funciones ejecutivas con las estrategias cognitivas de regulación emocional no adaptativas (ECRE-NA) en niños, controlando el género y los síntomas de ansiedad y depresión; así como analizar el posible efecto moderador de estos factores en dicha relación. Fueron evaluados 95 niños de 9 a 12 años de edad. Los resultados mostraron que menores niveles de memoria de trabajo y de flexibilidad cognitiva predijeron mayor rumiación; y que una menor capacidad de flexibilidad cognitiva predijo mayor autoculpabilización. El género moderó - marginalmente - las relaciones de la memoria de trabajo y la flexibilidad cognitiva con la rumiación, en el sentido de que un menor desempeño en ambas funciones ejecutivas predijo la rumiación en mayor proporción entre las mujeres que entre los varones. Se espera que estos resultados contribuyan a la mejora del diseño de programas de intervención de promoción de la salud mental infantil.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar a relação das funções executivas com as estratégias cognitivas de regulação emocional não adaptivas em crianças, controlando o gênero e os sintomas de ansiedade e depressão; bem como analisar o possível efeito moderador desses fatores. Um total de 95 crianças entre 9 e 12 anos foram avaliadas. Os resultados mostraram que níveis mais baixos de memória de trabalho e flexibilidade cognitiva predisseram maior ruminação; e que uma menor capacidade de flexibilidade cognitiva predisse maior autoculpabilização. O gênero influiu - marginalmente - nas relações de memória de trabalho e flexibilidade cognitiva com a ruminação, no sentido de que um desempenho inferior em ambas as funções executivas predisse ruminação em uma proporção maior entre as meninas que entre os meninos. Espera-se que estes resultados contribuam para a melhoria do desenho de programas de intervenção na promoção da saúde mental infantil.

The aim of this work was to analyze the relationship of executive functions with maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies in children, controlling for gender and for symptoms of anxiety and depression; as well as analyzing the possible moderating effect of these factors. A total of 95 children between 9 and 12 years old were evaluated. The results showed that lower levels of working memory and cognitive flexibility predicted greater rumination; and that a lower capacity for cognitive flexibility predicted greater self-blaming. Gender moderated - marginally - the relationships of working memory and cognitive flexibility with rumination, in the sense that a lower performance in both executive functions predicted rumination in a higher proportion among girls than among boys. It is expected that these results will contribute to the improvement in the design of intervention programs for promotion of mental health in children.

The Change Processes in Selective Attention during Adulthood. Inhibition or Processing Speed?

Selective attention is involved in multiple daily activities. Several authors state that it experiences a decline after 20 years, although there is no agreement regarding the cognitive processes that explain it. Two theories dominate the discussion: The theory of inhibitory inefficiency and the theory of processing speed. At the same time, it has been suggested that there could be complementary relations between both; however, it is not clear what the contribution of inhibition and processing speed is on the changes of selective attention. Therefore, the present study proposes to analyze this contribution, in adults between 20 and 80 years old. To assess selective attention and inhibitory control, two indices of a visual search task were obtained in which participants must identify a target stimulus among a set of distracting stimuli. To evaluate the processing speed, a response speed task was used. The main results indicate that, from the age of 60, a gradual decrease in selective attention begins and that this decline can be largely explained by a decrease in processing speed and inhibitory control. We discuss about the literature on the development of selective attention, the contribution of processing speed, and the inhibitory inefficiency hypothesis.

Inhibitory Processes and Fluid Intelligence: a Performance at Early Years of Schooling.

Inhibition constitutes one of the main executive functions and it is important to more complex skills such as fluid intelligence. Actually, there is an agreement on distinguishing three inhibitory types: perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition. Several studies show the differential engagement of these inhibitory types in different skills. However, there is no registered evidence about the differential relation of inhibitory types with fluid intelligence. This inquiry is especially important during the first school years, since in this stage, inhibitory processes would already be differentiated, and inhibitory processes and fluid intelligence are linked to the performance of children in the school setting. For these reasons, the goal of this work is to study the relation and contribution of perceptual, cognitive, and response inhibition with fluid intelligence, in children in the first years of primary school. For that purpose, a sample of children from six to eight years old (N = 178) was tested with a perceptual inhibition task (perception of similarities and differences task); a cognitive inhibition task (proactive interference task); a response inhibition task (stop signal task); and a fluid intelligence task (progressive matrices task). We observed significant correlations between perceptual and response inhibition and fluid intelligence (controlling for age), but only perceptual inhibition explains significantly part of the performance in the fluid intelligence task. This study provides data about the specific contribution, during childhood, of an inhibitory type to fluid intelligence and contributes empirical evidence in support of the non-unitary approach of inhibition.

La inhibición constituye una de las principales funciones ejecutivas, siendo fundamental para otras habilidades más complejas, tales como la inteligencia fluida. Actualmente, existe acuerdo en distinguir tres procesos inhibitorios: inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta. Distintos estudios muestran que los tipos inhibitorios participan de manera diferencial en diversas habilidades, aunque no se registra evidencia sobre la relación diferencial de los mismos con la inteligencia fluida. Su estudio es especialmente importante durante los primeros años de la escuela primaria, donde los procesos inhibitorios estarían diferenciados y tanto ellos como la inteligencia fluida se vinculan con el desempeño de los niños en el ámbito escolar. Por estos motivos, este trabajo se propuso analizar la relación y contribución de la inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta con la inteligencia fluida en niños en los primeros años de la escuela primaria. Para ello, una muestra de niños de seis a ocho años de edad (N = 178) fue evaluada con una tarea de inhibición perceptual (test de percepción de diferencias y similitudes), una tarea de inhibición cognitiva (tarea de interferencia proactiva), una tarea de inhibición de la respuesta (basada en el paradigma stop signal ) y una tarea de inteligencia fluida (test de matrices progresivas). Se encontraron correlaciones significativas entre la inhibición perceptual y de la respuesta con la inteligencia fluida (controlando la edad), pero solo la inhibición perceptual explica de manera significativa parte del rendimiento en la tarea de inteligencia fluida. Este estudio aporta datos específicos sobre la contribución de un tipo inhibitorio a la inteligencia fluida durante la niñez, así como evidencia empírica a favor del modelo no-unitario de la inhibición.

Adaptación y evidencias de validez de la Escala de Estilos de Respuesta en niños argentinos / Adaptation and evidence of validity of the Response Styles Scale in Argentinian children

La rumiación se considera un marcador estable de la aparición de la depresión, la recurrencia de episodios depresivos y el mantenimiento del afecto negativo. A pesar de su importancia clínica, esta cuestión no es abordada en profundidad en población infantil. Entre los factores relacionados con la falta de estudios, se encuentra la escasez de instrumentos para evaluar estas variables en niños. Por este motivo, este trabajo se propuso traducir la Escala de Estilos de Respuesta para Niños de Ziegert y Kistner (CRSS, 2002), adaptarla en población infantil con desarrollo típico de Argentina (Escala de Estilos de Respuesta en Niños-Argentina, EERN-A) y analizar sus propiedades psicométricas. Para ello, se evaluó a 434 niños argentinos de 8 a 12 años de edad y se analizó la estructura factorial de la escala y su confiabilidad. También se evaluó la validez concurrente del instrumento mediante su asociación con otras medidas de rumiación y distracción, y su validez convergente con medidas teóricamente relacionadas (ansiedad y depresión). Los resultados apoyan la multidimensionalidad e independencia de la rumiación y la distracción. Asimismo, las subescalas muestran relaciones con variables relacionadas, así como una adecuada estructura interna y fiabilidad. De este modo, este estudio supone un aporte para la evaluación de los estilos de respuestas en población infantil, debido a que permite contar con un instrumento válido para la evaluación de la rumiación y la distracción en niños

Rumination is considered a stable marker of the onset of depression, the recurrence of depressive episodes and the maintenance of negative affect. Despite its clinical importance, this issue is not properly addressed in children. Among the factors related to the lack of studies, is the lack of instruments to evaluate these variables in children. For this reason, this work had the aim to translate the Children's Response Styles Scale of Ziegert and Kistner (CRSS, 2002), adapt it in children with typical development of Argentina (Escala de Estilos de Respuesta en Niños-Argentina-EERN-A-) and analyze its psychometric properties. To this end, 434 Argentinian children aged 8 to 12 were evaluated. The factorial structure of the scale and its reliability were analyzed. The concurrent validity of the instrument was also evaluated through its association with other measures of rumination and distraction. Its convergent validity was evaluated through relationships with theoretically related variables (anxiety and depression). The results support the multidimensionality and independence of rumination and distraction. Likewise, the subscales show relationships with related variables as well as an adequate internal structure and reliability. Thus, this study is a contribution to the evaluation of response styles in children, because it provides a valid instrument for the assessment of rumination and distraction in children

Perceptual inhibition of emotional interference in children.

In daily life, when a bee approaches us while we are sitting in the garden, we must pay attention to that threatening stimulus and give an appropriate response. However, if this bee approaches us while riding a bike, we must inhibit that distractor to avoid an accident. In this case, avoiding the interference of an emotional stimuli and continuing with the task should be preferential. In general, perceptual inhibition is responsible for controlling and suppressing the environmental distractions that interrupt the course of the realization of a goal. In this study, 435 children performed a modified flanker task with entirely irrelevant emotional and neutral stimuli in order to assess perceptual inhibition in contexts with high and low emotional salience. The results showed that entirely irrelevant distractors affected performance, but that there were no significant differences according to whether these distractors were emotionally salient or neutral. These results constitute a first approach to the problem of emotional interference in children considering the multidimensional approach of inhibition.

Working Memory Training in Children: A Review of Basic Methodological Criteria.

Working memory is a process of great relevance during childhood due to its role in diverse complex skills. Like the rest of executive functions, it is highly sensitive to environmental influences, so it is assumed that it could be modified through targeted interventions. A large number of working memory training studies in children aim to achieve transfer effects both on this process and on those with which it is related. Although some promising results have been found, the efficacy of working memory training cannot be affirmed; methodological quality of studies is one of the main reasons for this. Compliance with basic methodological criteria (inclusion of a control group that must preferably be active, random assignment of participants to groups) has a great impact on the internal validity of the studies. Furthermore, the need to control for the effects of motivational factors associated with the intervention is added and emphasized. This study reviews the fulfillment of these criteria in process-based working memory training literature in children, analyzing its impact on internal validity. Limitations of the field in relation to the lack of compliance with the proposed criteria are discussed and alternatives are suggested in order to improve the quality of future studies.

Resistencia a la Interferencia de Distractores: Diseño y Aplicación de una Tarea de Entrenamiento para Niños / Resistance to Interference Distractor: Design and Application of a Training Task for Children

Resumen Desde la perspectiva no unitaria de la inhibición, la resistencia a la interferencia de los distractores refiere al proceso inhibitorio que participa en la atención selectiva; experimenta durante la infancia importantes cambios en su desarrollo y resulta fundamental para el desempeño de los niños en diversas actividades. Este trabajo se propuso diseñar una tarea de entrenamiento -informatizada, con un abordaje basado en procesos y a partir del paradigma de Flancos (Eriksen & Eriksen, 1974)- de este proceso inhibitorio, para niños con desarrollo típico de 6 a 8 años de edad; administrarla y analizar los efectos del entrenamiento sobre el proceso entrenado y otros no entrenados. Se trabajó con 54 niños, en 1º, 2º y 3º año de la escolaridad primaria. Se aplicó un diseño experimental con medidas pre y post-test (donde se administraron tareas de evaluación de resistencia a la interferencia de los distractores, inhibición de la respuesta y memoria de trabajo viso-espacial), un grupo experimental (que recibió el entrenamiento de la resistencia a la interferencia de distractores) y un grupo control activo. Luego de la intervención el grupo experimental presentó un mejor desempeño en una tarea que demanda el proceso entrenado. No se encontraron efectos sobre el rendimiento en otras tareas. Los efectos hallados son bajos, pudiendo deberse a la baja intensidad y duración de la intervención. Sin embargo, podrían constituir un aporte a la diferenciación de procesos inhibitorios, específicamente de la resistencia a la interferencia de distractores respecto y de la inhibición de la respuesta, en tanto el entrenamiento genera efectos en el proceso entrenado pero no el otro.

Abstract From the non-unitary perspective of inhibition, resistance to distractor interference is an inhibitory process related to selective attention, has developmental improvements throughout childhood and plays an important role in the children's performance in multiple activities. This work is aimed to design and administrate a resistance to interference distractor training task for children with typical development, between 6 and 8 years of age (a processes-based computerized flanker task). Also, this work is aimed to analyze the effects of the intervention on trained process and non-trained processes. We recruited children (n= 54) in the first three years of primary-school education. The study consisted of an experimental pre-test, post-test design (resistance to distractor interference, response inhibition and visuospatial working memory were administered), with experimental group (training resistance to distractor interference group) and active control group. After intervention, experimental group performed better in a resistance to distractor interference task. No effects on performance in other tasks were found. These small effects could be explained by the duration and the intensity of the intervention. However, these results contribute to non-unitary perspective about the differentiation of inhibitory processes, especially, to differentiation of resistance to distractor interference and response inhibition, because effects on trained process and absence of transfer to non-trained process were observed.

The change processes in selective attention during adulthood. Inhibition or processing speed?

Selective attention is involved in multiple daily activities. Several authors state that it experiences a decline after 20 years, although there is no agreement regarding the cognitive processes that explain it. Two theories dominate the discussion: The theory of inhibitory inefficiency and the theory of processing speed. At the same time, it has been suggested that there could be complementary relations between both; however, it is not clear what the contribution of inhibition and processing speed is on the changes of selective attention. Therefore, the present study proposes to analyze this contribution, in adults between 20 and 80 years old. To assess selective attention and inhibitory control, two indices of a visual search task were obtained in which participants must identify a target stimulus among a set of distracting stimuli. To evaluate the processing speed, a response speed task was used. The main results indicate that, from the age of 60, a gradual decrease in selective attention begins and that this decline can be largely explained by a decrease in processing speed and inhibitory control. We discuss about the literature on the development of selective attention, the contribution of processing speed, and the inhibitory inefficiency hypothesis

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Flexibilidad cognitiva y tres procesos inhibitorios durante los primeros años de la escolaridad primaria / Cognitive flexibility and three inhibitory processes during the first years of school period

La inhibición y la flexibilidad cognitiva son funciones ejecutivas principales, mientras la primera aportaría al funcionamiento de la segunda. Actualmente, se identifican distintos procesos inhibitorios -inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta- que presentarían relaciones diferenciales con diversas habilidades. Sin embargo, no se registran estudios sobre tales relaciones con la flexibilidad cognitiva durante los primeros años escolares, donde estas funciones están en desarrollo y contribuyen con el desempeño escolar. Este trabajo se propuso estudiar la relación y contribución de cada proceso inhibitorio a la flexibilidad cognitiva en niños escolares de 6 a 8 años. Los participantes (N=171) efectuaron tareas inhibitorias y de flexibilidad cognitiva. Los resultados muestran una relación baja entre la inhibición perceptual y la flexibilidad cognitiva y ausencia de relaciones con los otros procesos inhibitorios. Ello aporta evidencia al modelo no-unitario de la inhibición y permite discutir sobre la relación de los procesos durante el desarrollo(AU)

Inhibition and cognitive flexibility are basic executive functions, and inhibition would contribute to performance of cognitive flexibility. Actually, different inhibitory processes are identified ­perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition. They engagement differentially in diverse skills; however, studies about differential relationships between inhibitory processes and cognitive flexibility during first years of school period are not registered. At this stage, all of these functions are in development and are essential for children's academic performance. The goal of this work is to study the relation and contribution of each inhibitory process with the cognitive flexibility, in scholar children from 6 to 8 years-old. The participants (N=171) carried out inhibitory and cognitive flexibility tasks. The results show low relation between perceptual inhibition and cognitive flexibility, and absence of relations with other inhibitory processes. The study contributes evidence in support of the non-unitary approach of inhibition, and allows discuss about relationships between these functions during the development(AU)

El conocimiento de las fracciones. Una revisión de su relación con factores cognitivos / Fraction Knowledge. A Review Of Their Relationship With Cognitive Factors

Resumen El objetivo de este trabajo es realizar una revisión de la literatura que permita comprender la relación del conocimiento de las fracciones con los factores cognitivos en estudiantes de escolaridad primaria y secundaria. Se realizó una búsqueda de artículos empíricos en las bases de datos Education Research Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE, Primary Search, PsycARTICLES y PsycINFO. Los criterios de inclusión fueron: (a) trabajos empíricos, (b) efectuados con niños de escolaridad primaria o secundaria (de 6 a 18 años de edad), (c) publicados en revistas científicas con referato y (d) redactados en español o inglés. Las investigaciones seleccionadas coinciden respecto de que: (a) la atención predice el conocimiento conceptual y procedimental de las fracciones, (b) el lenguaje y la inteligencia fluida explican el conocimiento conceptual de las fracciones en la etapa inicial de su enseñanza sistemática y (c) el ejecutivo central contribuye a la predicción del conocimiento conceptual de las fracciones en años avanzados de la escolaridad. Se discuten las implicaciones teóricas y prácticas de estos resultados y se señalan posibles líneas de investigaciones futuras.

Abstract Learning fractions presents large difficulties for many children and adults. This is a serious problem, because different studies have shown that fraction knowledge predicts advanced mathematics, like algebra. Adult mathematic knowledge is related to employment opportunities, participation in high-skills occupations and economic and social well-being. Therefore, since fractions represent a backbone in mathematics achievement, understanding the factors that explain fractions learning is very important. Some theories of numerical cognition propose that general cognitive factors, like attention or working memory, contribute to learning mathematics. However, recent research has shown different and contradictory results about which cognitive factors are involved in fraction learning. Identifing the cognitive factors that explain fraction knowledge could lead to early identification of children with potential math learning difficulties and the development of interventions to improve their achievement. Therefore, the aim of this article is to perform a systematic literature review to analyze the relationship among some cognitive factors and fraction knowledge. A systematic literature search could define the state of the art on this topic, identify possible sources of controversy among studies, analyze those reasons to recognize points of agreement and discrepancy among studies and direct all this information towards future research lines. A systematic search of empirical articles was done on Education Research Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE Primary Search, PsycARTICLES, and PsycINFO databases. Search was carried out on September of 2017, with keywords in Spanish and their translation into English. Search terms were "fractions" ("fracciones") and "cognitive ability" ("habilidad cognitiva"), "cognitive processes" ("procesos cognitivos"), "working memory" ("memoria de trabajo"), "attention" ("atención"), "intelligence" ("inteligencia"), "speed of processing" ("velocidad de procesamiento"), "inhibition" ("inhibición") and "language" ("lenguaje"). Articles inclusion criteria were: (a) empirical studies, (b) with scholar age samples (6-18 years old), (c) published on peer review journals, (d) written in spanish or english. Thirteen publications were selected. They agree about attention predicting conceptual and procedural knowledge of fractions between fourth and sixth grade, (b) language and fluid intelligence explains conceptual knowledge of fractions in the initial stage of its systematic teaching, (c) central executive predicts fractions concepts in advanced levels of fraction instruction but not in the initial stages of learning, (d) central executive and fluid reasoning does not predict procedural fraction knowledge when other cognitive factors and mathematical abilities, like attention or whole number calculation skills, are included in the explanation models. In broad terms, these results are in line with some theoretical models of numerical cognition and suggested that cognitive processes and abilities are important to learn fractions. There are some practical implications to these results. Fraction learning could be improved by using pedagogical strategies and didactic materials which maximize cognitive performance. For example, employing novelty and ludic materials for teaching fractions could enable students to focus, maintain attention and improve their learning. Also, short instructions with low linguistic complexity would help students with attention, working memory or language difficulties to afford fractions activities and achieve a meaningful learning. On the other hand, working memory load to perform complex fraction activities would be reduced if basic fraction concept and procedures are consolidated in long term memory. Therefore, before advancing to more complex fractions activities in higher grades, the teacher should verify that the basic notions of fractions have been learnt and memorized by students. To develop theoretical cognitive models of mathematics learning, future research might analyze if cognitive factors contribute to fractions knowledge mainly through direct or indirect effects (that is, via their effects on others areas of math knowledge which affect fraction learning). On the other hand, the tasks used to measure cognitive factors are not always pure, that is, different cognitive operations are involved in their execution. Future studies might work with latent variables that allow the identification of the share variance between cognitive task, and consequently, the main cognitive factors involved in fractions learning.

Mecanismos de desarrollo de la atención selectiva en población infantil / The development mechanisms of selective attention in child population

Resumen La atención selectiva es la función cognitiva que orienta la atención hacia los objetos o estímulos que resultan relevantes evitando la distracción frente a aquellos que son irrelevantes. En general, la literatura indica que el desempeño de la atención selectiva mejora notablemente con la edad, sin embargo, las diferencias vinculadas a esta variable no se cumplen para todas las condiciones de cantidad de estímulos distractores ni para todos los grupos de edad. Asimismo, aún no se ha explorado la contribución del control inhibitorio y la velocidad de procesamiento a esta mejora progresiva. Por este motivo, y debido a la escasez de estudios en población infantil, se propuso analizar la contribución relativa de la velocidad de procesamiento y de la inhibición al desempeño en una tarea de atención selectiva y búsqueda visual en esta etapa evolutiva. Para ello, se administró una tarea de búsqueda de conjunciones y una tarea simple de velocidad de respuesta a 295 niños de 6 a 13 años de edad. Los resultados permitieron plantear dos conclusiones principales: por un lado, que la atención selectiva mejora consistentemente durante la niñez y, por otro lado, que no existe un mecanismo general y exclusivo capaz de explicar estas diferencias durante esta etapa vital. Así, tanto la velocidad de procesamiento como el control inhibitorio contribuyen al desarrollo de la atención selectiva y ambos mecanismos cognitivos actúan de manera complementaria más que excluyente.

Abstract Selective attention allows directs attention to relevant objects or stimuli, while avoiding distraction from those that are irrelevant. The literature indicates that performance in CVS tasks improves markedly with age. However, age-related differences are not met neither for every number of distractor conditions nor for all age groups. In addition, the contribution of inhibitory control and processing speed to this progressive improvement has not yet been explored. For this reason, and due to the scarcity of studies using CVS paradigm to evaluate selective attention in children, the present study aimed to analyze the relative contribution of processing speed and inhibition to performance during this evolutionary period in a selective attention and CVS task. To do this, a CVS and a simple response speed task were administered to 295 children aged 6-13 years old. Results offered two conclusions: first, selective attention improves during childhood; second, there is no general and exclusive mechanism capable of explaining these differences during this period. Thus, both processing speed and inhibitory control contribute to development of selective attention, and they seem to be more complementary mechanisms than excluding ones.

Inhibitory Processes Training for School-age Children: Transfer Effects.

Inhibition refers to a basic executive component that can be conceptualized as consisted of different inhibitory processes (i.e., perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition). These processes emerge during the first years of life, and since then are involved in different relevant every day activities. Different individual and contextual factors can modulate their developmental trajectories. The possibility of train in separate ways each inhibitory process is a subject of analysis. In such a context, the aims of this work were: (a) to design, implement and evaluate training of perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition processes, in a sample of school-aged children (6 to 8 years old); and (b) to analyze near, far, short- and long-transfer effects. An experimental design with three training groups (one for each inhibitory process) and an active control group was implemented. Near transfer effects were not observed. We found effects on a visuospatial working memory task in the short term, after the training in the response and cognitive inhibition, and effects on a fluid intelligence task in both the short and long term after the training in cognitive inhibition. The results contribute to a conceptualization of multidimensional inhibitory processes and the plausibility of training them during childhood.

Desarrollo de la inhibición perceptual en contextos emocionales y neutrales población infantil / Development of perceptual inhibition in emotional and neutral contexts in children

La inhibición perceptual es el proceso encargado de suprimir la interferencia de distractores externos. A pesar del rol central que juega la inhibición en dominios heterogéneos (como la salud mental, las habilidades académicas, o el desarrollo), la investigación en la temática muestra una comprensión limitada del desarrollo de este proceso, que además ha focalizado su estudio en contextos neutrales. Por ello, el objetivo del estudio fue analizar el desarrollo de la inhibición perceptual en contextos emocionales y neutrales en población infantil. Participaron del estudio 407 niños/as de 8 a 12 años, que fueron evaluados con una tarea informatizada basada en el paradigma de flancos y del distractor enteramente irrelevante. Los resultados mostraron que este proceso se desarrolla de manera progresiva y gradual, sin diferencias en función del contexto o dominio de aplicación. De este modo, permiten extender los resultados hallados principalmente en contextos neutrales, al contexto emocional. Este estudio constituye un aporte a la comprensión del desarrollo de este proceso inhibitorio, en ambos contextos (emocionales y neutrales)

Perceptual inhibition is the process responsible for suppressing the interference generated by external distractors. Despite the fact that inhibition plays a central role in heterogeneous domains (such as mental health, well-being, academic skills, and even development), research shows a limited understanding of the development of this process and has also focused mostly on neutral contexts. For this reason, this work aims to analyze the development of perceptual inhibition in emotional and neutral contexts in children. To this end, 407 children aged 8 to 12 years participated in the study. They were evaluated with a computerized task based on the flanker paradigm and the entirely irrelevant distractor paradigm. The results showed that perceptual inhibition develops gradually, and shows no differences depending on the context or domain. These findings allow the extension of previous results found in neutral contexts to the emotional context. This study constitutes a contribution to the understanding of development of this inhibitory process in both contexts (emotional and neutral)

Cognitive functioning: is it all or none?

Under various circumstances, the cognitive system operates in a global manner that is not very precise and barely discriminatory. This form of operating has been described via a general principal that Diamond (Developmental Psychology 45:130-138, 2009) has denominated the All or None Hypothesis. This author has described a set of corollaries derived from this hypothesis that make it possible to verify it in each one of these domains. Although there is evidence of the global and non-discriminate way in which the cognitive system operates in populations of children, to date, there are no studies that have examined whether this mode of operation is also present in populations of adults. Researchers have yet to determine whether these corollaries apply to middle-aged adults. For this reason, this is the current study's principal objective. A sample of 73 participants with ages ranging from 18 to 57 of both genders was evaluated. A modified version of the arrows test in Davidson et al. (Neuropsychologia 44:2037-2078, 2006) was used to analyze the three corollaries. The results obtained in this study can be interpreted as evidence in favor of the corollaries analyzed herein. Furthermore, they indicate that adult populations have a global response mode that is barely differentiated and that is activated by default in the face of problems and situations that demand behaviors and/or thoughts that are not very analytical and differentiated. However, in contexts that demand greater discrimination, this global mode is substituted by a controlled mode that requires greater cognitive effort and more differentiated processing.